The Indian Freedom Movement (1885–1947)
"Freedom is not given. It is TAKEN. Millions of Indians — known and unknown — sacrificed everything so that we could be free."
1. The Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885)
Founded by A.O. Hume (a retired British civil servant). First session: Bombay. First President: W.C. Bonnerjee. 72 delegates attended.
Objectives (Early Phase)
NOT independence. REFORMS within British rule: More Indians in the civil service and legislative councils. Reduction in military expenditure. Freedom of the press. 'The early Congress was MODERATE — it believed in petitions, prayers, and peaceful protest. It trusted British justice.'
2. The Moderate Phase (1885–1905)
| Leader | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Dadabhai Naoroji | 'Grand Old Man of India.' Wrote 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.' DRAIN THEORY — Britain was draining India's wealth. First Indian elected to British House of Commons. |
| Gopal Krishna Gokhale | Moderate. Believed in gradual reform. Mentor to Gandhi. |
| Surendranath Banerjee | Founded Indian Association. 'The Indian Burke.' |
Drain Theory (Dadabhai Naoroji)
Britain extracted India's wealth through: Salaries and pensions paid to British officials in India (paid from Indian revenues). Export surplus (India exported more than it imported — but the surplus went to Britain). Interest on loans. 'Naoroji calculated that Britain drained £30-40 MILLION annually from India. This wealth — which should have been invested in India's development — was TRANSFERRED to Britain.'
3. Partition of Bengal (1905) — The Turning Point
Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal: EAST Bengal (Muslim majority). WEST Bengal (Hindu majority). OFFICIAL reason: 'Administrative convenience — Bengal was too large.' REAL reason: DIVIDE AND RULE — weaken the nationalist movement by splitting Hindus and Muslims.
The Swadeshi Movement
Boycott BRITISH goods. Use INDIAN-made goods. Public bonfires of foreign cloth. 'Bande Mataram' became the rallying cry. Students, women, workers — MASS PARTICIPATION. Rabindranath Tagore composed patriotic songs. 'Swadeshi was a MASS movement — the first in Indian history where ordinary people participated in large numbers.' Partition ANNULLED in 1911.
4. The Extremist Phase (1905–1920)
Lal-Bal-Pal: Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab — 'Punjab Kesari'). Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra — 'Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!'). Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal). Demanded SWARAJ (self-rule). Used mass mobilisation. Revived Ganapati and Shivaji festivals to reach the masses. 'Tilak was the FIRST leader to bring nationalism to the common people — not just the educated elite.'
5. The Arrival of Gandhi
Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915. Early successes: Champaran (1917) — indigo peasants in Bihar. Kheda (1918) — tax relief for drought-affected peasants. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918). 'Gandhi's method: SATYAGRAHA (truth-force). Non-violent resistance. Willingness to suffer. Moral pressure on the opponent.'
Rowlatt Act (1919) and Jallianwala Bagh
Rowlatt Act: Arrest without trial. Detention without charge. Indians OUTRAGED. Gandhi called a NATIONWIDE HARTAL. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919, Amritsar) : General DYER ordered troops to fire on a peaceful gathering. Hundreds killed. Thousands wounded. Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood. 'Jallianwala Bagh was a TURNING POINT. It shattered any remaining faith in British justice. Indians now demanded FREEDOM — not reforms.'
6. The Gandhian Movements
| Movement | Year | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| Non-Cooperation (NCM) | 1920–22 | Boycott British schools, courts, titles. Swadeshi. Khadi. WITHDRAWN after CHAURI CHAURA violence (police station burnt, 22 policemen killed). |
| Civil Disobedience (CDM) | 1930–34 | DANDI MARCH (240 miles, 24 days). Broke SALT LAW. Mass participation — especially WOMEN. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Round Table Conference (FAILED). |
| Quit India (QIM) | 1942 | 'DO OR DIE.' Gandhi arrested immediately. Leaderless mass upsurge. British resolved to TRANSFER POWER after WWII. |
7. Independence and Partition (1947)
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): India would be partitioned into TWO dominions — India and Pakistan. Indian Independence Act (July 1947). August 15, 1947: India became FREE. Pakistan was created. 'The joy of freedom was drowned in the BLOOD of Partition.' ~15 million displaced. ~1 million killed in communal violence.
8. The Role of Andhra Pradesh in the Freedom Struggle
| Leader | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Alluri Sitarama Raju (1897–1924) | Led the RAMPA REBELLION (1922-24) in the Godavari agency areas — tribal uprising against the oppressive Madras Forest Act. 'Manyam Veerudu' (Hero of the Jungles). Used guerrilla warfare. Captured and executed at age 27. |
| Potti Sriramulu (1901–1952) | Gandhian. Fast unto DEATH (58 days) for a separate Telugu-speaking state. His sacrifice led to ANDHRA STATE (1953) — India's FIRST linguistic state. |
| Tanguturi Prakasam (1872–1957) | 'Andhra Kesari' (Lion of Andhra). First Chief Minister of Andhra State. Famous for baring his chest to British guns in Madras (1928 — Simon Commission protest). |
| Durgabai Deshmukh (1909–1981) | Freedom fighter. Social reformer. Founded Andhra Mahila Sabha for women's education. Member of Constituent Assembly. |
9. Common Mistakes
- 'Congress demanded independence from the start' — NO. Early Congress (1885–1905) demanded REFORMS. The demand for Purna Swaraj (complete independence) came only in 1929 (Lahore session).
- 'Jallianwala Bagh = 1919' — Specific date: April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi day).
- 'Alluri Sitarama Raju fought in 1857' — He fought in 1922-24, in the Rampa region of present-day Andhra Pradesh.
10. AP SSC Exam Focus
| Topic | Marks |
|---|---|
| Early Congress — Moderates | 3-4 |
| Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi | 3-4 |
| Gandhi's movements (NCM, CDM, QIM) | 4-5 |
| AP freedom fighters | 4-5 |
11. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) — In Detail
Background: The Rowlatt Act (1919) and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) SHATTERED Indian faith in British justice. Gandhi called for NON-COOPERATION — a movement of PEACEFUL, NON-VIOLENT RESISTANCE.
Programme:
- Surrender TITLES and HONOURS given by the British.
- Boycott British SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, and COURTS.
- Boycott British LEGISLATIVE COUNCILS.
- Boycott FOREIGN GOODS (especially cloth). Promote SWADESHI and KHADI.
- Gradually: NO TAX CAMPAIGN.
Spread: The movement was SPECTACULARLY SUCCESSFUL at first. Thousands of students left government schools. Lawyers gave up their practices. Foreign cloth was BURNED in public bonfires. Khadi became a SYMBOL of resistance. Women participated in LARGE NUMBERS (for many, this was their first experience of political activism).
Chauri Chaura Incident (Feb 5, 1922) : In Chauri Chaura (Gorakhpur, UP), a crowd of protesters was FIRED UPON by police. The protesters RETALIATED — SET FIRE to the police station. 22 policemen were BURNED TO DEATH.
Gandhi's Response: Gandhi was DEVASTATED. He IMMEDIATELY called OFF the Non-Cooperation Movement — despite widespread opposition from other Congress leaders. 'He believed that SATYAGRAHA was CONTAMINATED by violence. If the people could not maintain NON-VIOLENCE, the movement could not continue — even if this meant DELAYING independence.'
Consequences: The movement was WITHDRAWN. Gandhi was arrested (1922) and imprisoned for 6 years (served 2). Congress was DEMORALISED. Many followers felt BETRAYED. 'This was a MAJOR TURNING POINT. It revealed the CENTRAL TENSION in Gandhi's philosophy: he would rather ABANDON the movement than compromise on NON-VIOLENCE.'
12. The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934) — In Detail
Background: The Simon Commission (1928) — ALL-BRITISH commission to review constitutional reforms. Indians protested with 'SIMON GO BACK.' Lala Lajpat Rai died after a POLICE LATHI CHARGE (1928). The Nehru Report (1928) demanded DOMINION STATUS. The Lahore Congress (1929) declared PURNA SWARAJ (complete independence) as the goal.
The Dandi March (March 12 - April 6, 1930) : Gandhi left Sabarmati Ashram with 78 followers. Walked 240 MILES (385 km) to Dandi, a coastal village in Gujarat. Reached Dandi on Apri 6, 1930. He PICKED UP SALT from the seashore — a symbolic violation of the BRITISH SALT LAWS.
'The Salt March was BRILLIANT POLITICAL THEATRE. The British had a MONOPOLY on salt — the most BASIC and UNIVERSAL necessity. Gandhi chose an issue that EVERY Indian — rich or poor, Hindu or Muslim, man or woman — could understand. Everyone needs SALT. Everyone pays the salt tax.'
Key Events of CDM:
- Salt Satyagraha: Across India, people manufactured salt illegally. Tens of thousands were ARRESTED.
- Boycott of British Goods: Foreign cloth, liquor, and British banks boycotted.
- No Tax Campaign: Peasants refused to pay land revenue. In Gujarat's Bardoli (1928, precursor to CDM), the movement was led by VALLABHBHAI PATEL.
- Women's Participation: Women became ACTIVE participants. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay. Sarojini Naidu. Mithuben Petit. Thousands of women picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. 'Women came out of PURDAH. They faced LATHI CHARGES and ARREST. This changed the social role of women in Indian society.'
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931) : Gandhi met Viceroy Lord Irwin. Pact agreed: Congress would SUSPEND the CDM. British would RELEASE political prisoners. Allow peaceful salt-making by coastal villagers. Gandhi would attend the SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE in London.
Round Table Conference (1931) : Gandhi represented the Congress. DEMANDS: Complete independence. NO AGREEMENT reached. Communal representation issue (Muslim, Depressed Classes, Sikh, Christian) — DIFFERENT interests could not be reconciled.
Resumption of CDM: Gandhi returned EMPTY-HANDED. Renewed mass movements. Gandhi arrested again. Movement FADED by 1934.
13. The Quit India Movement (1942) — In Detail
Background: World War II (1939). Britain DECLARED India at war WITHOUT consulting Indian leaders. Congress ministries RESIGNED in protest. The 'August Offer' (1940) and Cripps Mission (1942) FAILED to satisfy Indian demands.
The Call: On AUGUST 8, 1942, the All India Congress Committee passed the QUIT INDIA resolution at Gowalia Tank (now August Kranti Maidan), Mumbai. Gandhi gave the call: 'DO OR DIE.' The British must LEAVE INDIA immediately.
Immediate Arrest: Before the movement could be organised, the British arrested ALL Congress leaders — Gandhi, all members of the Congress Working Committee, and thousands of Congress workers. The leadership was DECAPITATED.
Mass Uprising: Despite the arrests (or because of them), the movement became a SPONTANEOUS, LEADERLESS UPHEAVAL:
- STRIKES and HARTALS across the country.
- ATTACKS on POLICE STATIONS, RAILWAY STATIONS, and POST OFFICES.
- Railway tracks UPROOTED. Telegraph lines CUT. Government buildings BURNED.
- PARALLEL GOVERNMENTS formed in some areas (Satara in Maharashtra, Ballia and Azamgarh in UP, Tamluk in Bengal).
- STUDENTS played a LEADING ROLE (universities closed, students joined underground activities).
- Radio stations were briefly seized — used to broadcast patriotic messages.
Government Repression: The British responded with MASSIVE FORCE. ~100,000 arrested. ~1,000 killed in police and military firing. Public floggings. Collective fines imposed on villages. Aerial bombing of villages in some areas.
Underground Activities: While leaders were in jail, underground networks operated. Aruna Asaf Ali (the 'Grand Old Lady of the Independence Movement') hoisted the Congress flag at Gowalia Tank. Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) — escaped from prison, led underground resistance. Rammanohar Lohia, S.M. Joshi, Achyut Patwardhan.
Significance: QIM was the MOST POWERFUL mass uprising in Indian history. It CRUSHED any remaining British hopes of controlling India after the war. 'The British realised: they could no longer rule India. After QIM, the BRITISH DECIDED TO LEAVE. The only remaining questions: WHEN, and HOW.'
14. The Indian National Army (INA) and Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose (1897-1945): Congress President (1938, 1939). DIFFERED with Gandhi on the use of NON-VIOLENCE. Believed in ARMED STRUGGLE. 'Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.'
Formation of INA: During WWII, Bose escaped from house arrest in Calcutta (1941) → went to Afghanistan → USSR → Germany. In 1943, he went to SINGAPORE (with German submarine and Japanese submarine). Revived the INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY (INA) — originally formed by Captain Mohan Singh from Indian prisoners of war captured by Japan. Bose reorganised the INA as the AZAD HIND FANA (Government of Free India).
Key Campaigns: INA fought alongside the Japanese army in IMPHAL and KOHIMA (1944). 'Delhi Chalo' was the rallying cry. The campaign ULTIMATELY FAILED (Japanese supply lines overstretched, monsoon, fierce British resistance). Bose escaped by plane — DIED in a plane crash in Taipei (1945). 'Controversy surrounds his death. Many Indians believe Bose DID NOT DIE in 1945.'
Impact of INA: The INA trials (Red Fort, 1945-46) STUNNED India. The British charged three INA officers for TREASON — but the public saw them as PATRIOTS. Mass protests across India. The British naval ratings in Bombay (Royal Indian Navy mutiny, February 1946) were INFLUENCED by the INA spirit. 'The INA trials proved that the British could no longer count on Indian soldiers to suppress fellow Indians. The foundations of the empire were CRUMBLING.'
15. Partition and Independence — The Final Phase
Cabinet Mission (1946) : British Cabinet mission arrived to negotiate transfer of power. Proposed a FEDERAL India with grouped provinces. FAILED — Congress and Muslim League could not agree.
Direct Action Day (Aug 16, 1946) : Muslim League called for 'DIRECT ACTION' to demand Pakistan. Massive communal violence in CALCUTTA — ~4,000 killed. Violence spread to Noakhali (Bengal), Bihar, and Punjab. 'Communal violence had NEVER been on this scale. The Partition of India was now ALMOST INEVITABLE.'
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) : Lord Mountbatten (last Viceroy) announced: British India would be PARTITIONED into INDIA and PAKISTAN. The Princely States would choose between ACCEDING to India or Pakistan (by August 15).
The Radcliffe Line: Sir Cyril Radcliffe chaired the boundary commission. Given JUST 5 WEEKS to draw the border. 'The Radcliffe Line divided: Punjab (West → Pakistan, East → India). Bengal (East → Pakistan, West → India). The border was drawn with LITTLE understanding of local geography and demographics. Millions ended up on the 'wrong' side.'
August 15, 1947: India became INDEPENDENT. Jawaharlal Nehru gave his 'Tryst with Destiny' speech. Pakistan was created on August 14.
The Human Tragedy of Partition: ~15 MILLION people displaced — the LARGEST mass migration in world history. ~1 MILLION killed in communal violence. Women were ABDUCTED, RAPED, and MURDERED on both sides. Tens of thousands of women were KILLED BY THEIR OWN FAMILIES to 'protect their honour.' The TRAUMA of Partition shaped the psyche of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh for generations.
16. Key Leaders and Dates — Quick Reference
Key Leaders
| Leader | Key Contribution |
|---|---|
| Mahatma Gandhi | Non-violent resistance. Satyagraha. Led NCM, CDM, QIM. |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | First PM. Vision of modern, secular, socialist India. |
| Subhas Chandra Bose | INA. Armed struggle against British. 'Delhi Chalo.' |
| Bhagat Singh | Revolutionary. Threw bomb in Central Assembly (1929). Executed at 23. |
| Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel | United 562 princely states into India. 'Iron Man of India.' |
| B.R. Ambedkar | Drafted Constitution. Champion of Dalit rights. |
| Dadabhai Naoroji | Drain Theory. Moderate Congress leader. First Indian MP in Britain. |
| Bal Gangadhar Tilak | 'Swaraj is my birthright.' Extremist leader. |
| Sarojini Naidu | Poet and freedom fighter. First woman Congress President. |
Key Dates
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 1857 | First War of Indian Independence (Sepoy Mutiny) |
| 1885 | Indian National Congress founded |
| 1905 | Partition of Bengal |
| 1919 | Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13) |
| 1920-22 | Non-Cooperation Movement |
| 1930 | Dandi March (April 6) — Civil Disobedience Movement begins |
| 1931 | Gandhi-Irwin Pact |
| 1942 | Quit India Movement (August 8) |
| 1945-46 | INA Trials |
| 1946 | Cabinet Mission. Direct Action Day (Aug 16) |
| 1947 | Independence and Partition (Aug 15) |
17. AP Freedom Fighters — In Detail
Alluri Sitarama Raju (1897-1924)
'Manyam Veerudu' (Hero of the Jungles). Born in Mogallu, West Godavari. He was deeply influenced by the TRIBAL STRUGGLE against the oppressive MADRAS FOREST ACT — which restricted tribal access to forests and forced them into cheap labour.
The Rampa Rebellion (1922-24) : Alluri organised the tribal people of the Godavari agency areas. He used GUERRILLA WARFARE — attacked police stations, raided government treasuries, and evaded capture for nearly 2 years. 'He was a MASTER of jungle warfare. The British could not catch him in the dense forests of the Eastern Ghats.' He was CAPTURED in 1924 and EXECUTED by firing squad at the age of 27.
Tanguturi Prakasam (1872-1957)
'Andhra Kesari' (Lion of Andhra). Freedom fighter and first Chief Minister of Andhra State. Famous for baring his CHEST to British guns during the Simon Commission protest in Madras (1928) — daring them to shoot. A BRILLIANT lawyer who gave up his practice for the freedom movement. Associated with the CONGRESS party. Led the Swaraj Party in the Madras Legislative Council.
Potti Sriramulu (1901-1952)
Already covered in detail in the AP Formation chapter. A Gandhian who fasted UNTO DEATH for 58 days for a separate Telugu-speaking state. His sacrifice led to ANDHRA STATE (1953) — India's first linguistic state.
Durgabai Deshmukh (1909-1981)
Freedom fighter, social reformer, and Member of the Constituent Assembly. Founded ANDHRA MAHILA SABHA (1937) for women's education and empowerment. Instrumental in the formation of the SOCIAL WELFARE BOARD of India. Married to C.D. Deshmukh (Union Finance Minister). 'A woman of EXCEPTIONAL courage and vision — she battled British rule, social conservatism, and gender discrimination simultaneously.'
18. Self-Test Questions
- Explain the DRAIN THEORY of Dadabhai Naoroji. Why was it significant?
- What was the PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905)? Why did the British do it, and what was the Indian response?
- Describe the NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT. Why did Gandhi call it off?
- What was the DANDI MARCH? Why was the choice of SALT a brilliant political strategy?
- Explain the QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT. What was its significance?
- What was the role of SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE and the INA in India's freedom struggle?
- What happened at JALLIANWALA BAGH? What was its impact on the freedom movement?
- Name FOUR AP FREEDOM FIGHTERS and describe their contributions.
- What were the causes and consequences of PARTITION?
- How did the REVOLT OF 1857 mark the beginning of the organised freedom struggle?
Answers to Selected Questions: Q2: The British partitioned Bengal in 1905 — OFFICIALLY for 'administrative convenience,' ACTUALLY to DIVIDE AND RULE by splitting Hindus and Muslims. Indian response: SWADESHI MOVEMENT — boycott of British goods, mass protests, public bonfires of foreign cloth. The partition was ANNULLED in 1911 due to intense opposition. Q4: The Dandi March (240 miles, 24 days, 78 followers) culminated in Gandhi breaking the SALT LAWS on April 6, 1930. Salt was a PERFECT SYMBOL: EVERY Indian needed it, EVERY Indian paid the salt tax, and it was the MOST UNIVERSAL issue that could unite all Indians. This LAUNCHED the Civil Disobedience Movement.
