What Books and Burials Tell Us

Introduction

How do we know about people who lived thousands of years ago? Sometimes the books they wrote survive, and sometimes their graves tell stories even after they are gone. In this chapter, we will explore two kinds of evidence — the ancient books called the Vedas and the burial sites of the megalithic people. Both give us valuable clues about early societies in the Indian subcontinent.

The Vedas — Our Oldest Books

The Vedas are the oldest known literary works of the Indian subcontinent. They were composed between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. The word 'Veda' comes from the Sanskrit root 'vid' meaning 'to know'. The Vedas are considered shruti (that which is heard) and were transmitted orally for many generations before being written down.

The Four Vedas

The Rigveda in Detail

The Rigveda is the oldest Veda and one of the oldest texts in the world:

• Composed: Around 1500-1000 BCE
• Language: Vedic Sanskrit (older than classical Sanskrit)
• Number of hymns: 1,028 hymns (suktas)
• Organisation: Divided into 10 books (mandalas)
• Gods addressed: Agni (fire god), Indra (war god / rain god), Surya (sun god), Varuna (water god), Vayu (wind god), Prithvi (earth goddess)

The Rigveda is the oldest text in any Indo-European language. It comes from the same language family as English, German, Greek, Latin, and Persian.

How Were the Vedas Preserved?

The Vedas were preserved through a remarkable oral tradition:

• Students memorised every word perfectly.
• Special methods of recitation were used to ensure accuracy.
• Different 'shakhas' (branches) or schools of Vedic learning existed.
• Even today, some scholars can recite the entire Rigveda from memory.

This oral tradition is one of the longest unbroken traditions of memorisation in human history.

Society According to the Rigveda

The Rigveda tells us about the society of that time:

Tribes and Chiefs

People were organised into tribes (jana) rather than kingdoms:

• Bharata — The most important tribe mentioned. The name 'Bharat' comes from this tribe.
• Purushu, Anu, Druhyu, Yadu, Turvasha — Other tribes mentioned.
• The Battle of Ten Kings is described in the Rigveda, where King Sudasa of the Bharata tribe defeated a group of ten tribes on the banks of the Ravi River.

The tribal chief was called rajan (king). His main duties were to protect the tribe and lead in battle. He was not an absolute ruler — he had to consult with the sabha (council) and samiti (assembly).

Social Divisions

Three main social groups are mentioned:

1. Brahmins — Priests who performed sacrifices and studied the Vedas
2. Kshatriyas — Warriors who fought and ruled
3. Vaishyas — Farmers, herders, and traders

The fourth group, Shudras (servants/labourers), is mentioned in a later hymn of the Rigveda but not in the early parts.

These divisions were based on occupation, not birth, in the early Vedic period. The idea of caste based on birth became rigid only much later.

Economy

• Cattle-rearing was very important. Cows were considered a measure of wealth.
• The word for 'war' in the Rigveda is 'gavishti' which means 'search for cows'.
• Agriculture was also practised — barley (yava) was the main crop.
• Trade and barter were common. There was no coinage yet.

Women in the Rigveda

• Women could attend assemblies and participate in religious ceremonies.
• Some women composed hymns — Ghosha, Lopamudra, and Visvavara are mentioned as women seers.
• Girls could study the Vedas.
• Marriages were generally monogamous, but some men had multiple wives.

Megalithic Burials

The word 'megalith' comes from Greek: 'megas' (big) + 'lithos' (stone). Megaliths are large stone structures used as burial monuments. They were built between 3000 BCE and 1000 BCE in different parts of India.

Types of Megaliths

What Was Buried

Megalithic graves contain:

• Human bones (sometimes complete skeletons, sometimes only parts)
• Pottery — often black and red ware
• Iron tools and weapons — axes, swords, spears, knives
• Ornaments — beads of gold, copper, carnelian, and shell
• Animal bones — suggesting animals were sacrificed or kept as food for the afterlife

What Burials Tell Us

Burials reveal a lot about the society:

1. Belief in afterlife: People buried items with the dead, showing they believed in a life after death.
2. Social differences: Some graves have many valuable items, while others have only a few. This shows that some people were richer and more important.
3. Gender differences: The kinds of items buried with men and women can be different. Men were often buried with weapons; women with ornaments and household items.
4. Trade: Beads and materials found in burials came from distant places, showing trade existed.
5. Disease and health: Studying skeletons can reveal what diseases people suffered from.

Megaliths in Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has many megalithic sites:

• Megalithic sites in Guntur district — Many megalithic burials have been found here.
• Yelleswaram (Nalgonda district) — Important megalithic site with burials and iron tools.
• Megaliths in Kurnool district — Several megalithic monuments found.
• Chittoor district megaliths — Dolmens and cists found in multiple locations.
• Amaravati region — Megalithic burials found near the Buddhist stupa area.

Andhra Pradesh has one of the highest concentrations of megalithic sites in India. This shows that the region was densely inhabited during the Iron Age.

Iron Tools and Agriculture

During the megalithic period, iron became common:

Iron tools helped people clear forests, plough harder soil, and produce more food. This led to population growth and the emergence of larger settlements.

Skeletal Studies

When archaeologists study skeletons, they can learn:

1. Age at death — How long people lived
2. Sex — Whether the person was male or female
3. Diseases — Signs of arthritis, dental problems, infections
4. Nutrition — Whether the person had enough food
5. Cause of death — Sometimes injuries or diseases can be identified
6. Work patterns — Bones show signs of physical stress from daily activities

For example, skeletons from megalithic burials in Andhra Pradesh show signs of arthritis and dental wear, suggesting people ate coarse food and worked hard.

Common Mistakes Students Make

• Thinking all four Vedas are equally old — the Rigveda is the oldest.
• Believing the Vedic caste system was based on birth — it was initially based on occupation.
• Calling all stone structures 'megaliths' — megaliths are specifically burial-related.
• Thinking all burials have complete skeletons — many have only parts of skeletons.
• Confusing megaliths with Harappan seals — they belong to different periods.

Quick Self-Test

1. What is the Rigveda and why is it important?
2. Name the four Vedas.
3. How were the Vedas preserved without writing?
4. What does the word 'gavishti' mean and what does it tell us?
5. What are megaliths?
6. What kinds of items are found in megalithic burials?
7. How do burials show social differences?
8. Name a megalithic site in Andhra Pradesh.
9. How did iron tools change agriculture?
10. What can skeletal studies tell us about past people?

Exam Focus (5 Marks)

• Describe what the Rigveda tells us about Vedic society.
• Explain the significance of megalithic burials for understanding ancient societies.
• How do iron tools show a change from earlier periods?