9.1 Introduction: The British and the Land
After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the East India Company acquired the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal. The Company now had both political power and economic control. It needed a reliable system to extract revenue from the land — after all, land revenue was the Company's main source of income.
The British experimented with different revenue systems in different parts of India. Their primary concern was maximising revenue, not the welfare of peasants.
'The British land revenue systems were designed to extract as much money as possible from the Indian countryside. Millions of peasants were reduced to poverty, indebtedness, and hunger.'
9.2 The Permanent Settlement (1793)
Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha (and later in parts of Madras Presidency).
Key Features
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Zamindars | Recognised as owners of the land |
| Revenue fixed | Permanently fixed (would not increase) |
| Collection | Zamindars collected from peasants, paid the Company |
| Due date | Zamindars had to pay by a fixed date or lose their estate |
| Peasant status | Peasants (ryots) became tenants at the mercy of zamindars |
Impact of Permanent Settlement
On Zamindars:
- Many grew rich and became loyal supporters of the British.
- Those who could not collect enough revenue lost their estates.
- Many became absentee landlords, living in cities and leaving management to agents.
On Peasants:
- Worst affected. Zamindars demanded high rents to maximise their own profit.
- No security of tenure — peasants could be evicted for non-payment.
- Indebtedness increased as peasants borrowed money to pay rents.
- Famines became frequent because peasants had no surplus stored.
On the Company:
- Gained a steady, predictable revenue stream.
- Created a loyal class of zamindars who supported British rule.
'The Permanent Settlement was permanent only for the Company's revenue — it could never be increased. But the zamindar's rent from peasants was not permanent; it kept rising. This was deliberate.'
9.3 The Ryotwari System (1820)
Introduced by Thomas Munro in the Madras Presidency (which covered the Andhra region) and later in the Bombay Presidency.
Key Features
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Ryot (peasant) | Recognised as the owner of the land |
| Direct settlement | Company directly settled revenue with the peasant (no zamindar) |
| Revenue | Based on the quality and productivity of the soil |
| Periodic revision | Revenue was revised periodically (not permanently fixed) |
| High rates | Revenue was set at about 50% of the produce in good years |
Impact of Ryotwari
On Ryots:
- Appeared fairer (no middleman), but revenue rates were very high.
- If the harvest failed, peasants still had to pay or borrow money.
- Many lost their lands to moneylenders when they could not pay.
- Heavy assessment led to widespread peasant indebtedness.
On the Company:
- Direct control over revenue collection.
- Could revise rates upward periodically.
- More revenue than the Permanent Settlement.
AP Context: Ryotwari in Andhra
The Ryotwari system was the primary revenue system in the Andhra districts of the Madras Presidency. Thomas Munro personally surveyed the lands of the Ceded Districts (Kurnool, Kadapa, Anantapur, Bellary — parts of Rayalaseema). The high revenue demands, combined with frequent droughts in Rayalaseema, caused immense hardship. Peasant revolts occurred in several areas.
9.4 The Mahalwari System (1833)
Introduced in the North-Western Provinces (UP, Punjab, parts of MP).
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Mahal (village/estate) | Revenue settlement was made with the entire village collectively |
| Village headman | Responsible for collecting revenue from individual cultivators |
| Periodic revision | Revenue was revised periodically |
| Joint responsibility | The village community was collectively responsible for payment |
9.5 Comparison of Revenue Systems
| Feature | Permanent Settlement | Ryotwari | Mahalwari |
|---|---|---|---|
| Introducer | Lord Cornwallis | Thomas Munro | Holt Mackenzie / William Bentinck |
| Region | Bengal, Bihar, Odisha | Madras, Bombay presidencies | NW Provinces, Punjab |
| Revenue payer | Zamindar | Ryot (peasant) | Village headman |
| Revenue fixed? | Permanently | Periodically revised | Periodically revised |
| Middleman | Yes (zamindar) | No (direct) | Yes (headman) |
| Peasant condition | Very poor (tenants) | Poor (high taxes) | Poor (collective liability) |
9.6 Indigo Cultivation and the Blue Rebellion (1859)
Why Indigo?
Indigo is a blue dye used for colouring cloth. Before synthetic dyes were invented, indigo was the best source of blue. The Industrial Revolution in England created huge demand for dyed cloth, so the British needed large quantities of indigo.
How Indigo Was Grown in India
The British forced peasants in Bengal (and some in AP's Krishna-Godavari delta) to grow indigo instead of food crops.
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Nij cultivation | Planter directly cultivated indigo on his own land |
| Ryoti cultivation | Peasants were forced (often through advances and contracts) to grow indigo on their own land |
The Harshness of Indigo Cultivation
- Low prices: Planters paid very low rates for the indigo crop.
- Coercion: Peasants were beaten, tortured, or evicted if they refused.
- Loss of food security: By growing indigo, peasants reduced land for rice and other food crops.
- Debt trap: Peasants took advances from planters and could never escape the cycle.
The Blue Rebellion (1859)
In 1859, peasants of Bengal (especially in Nadia district) rose in revolt against indigo planters. They:
- Attacked indigo factories and planters' properties.
- Refused to grow indigo.
- Defied the planters' authority.
Outcome:
- The government formed the Indigo Commission (1860) to investigate.
- The commission reported in favour of the peasants — indigo cultivation was declared exploitative.
- However, enforcement was weak, and indigo continued in some areas.
'The Blue Rebellion is a powerful example of peasant resistance. Ordinary farmers, driven to desperation, rose up against an unjust system — and won at least a partial victory.'
AP Connection: Indigo in the Krishna-Godavari Delta
Indigo was also cultivated in parts of the Krishna and Godavari delta regions (coastal Andhra) during the British period. However, the crop declined in AP after synthetic dyes were invented in the late 19th century, and farmers returned to rice and other crops.
9.7 Common Mistakes
| Mistake | Fix |
|---|---|
| Confusing Ryotwari and Mahalwari | Ryotwari = settlement with individual peasant; Mahalwari = with the whole village |
| Thinking Permanent Settlement was also in AP | Permanent Settlement was mostly in Bengal; AP was under Ryotwari (Madras Presidency) |
| Saying the Blue Rebellion was about indigo in AP | It was primarily in Bengal (Nadia district) |
| Forgetting that all systems exploited peasants | While different in form, all three systems extracted maximum revenue from peasants |
9.8 Exam Focus (AP Board)
| Topic | Marks |
|---|---|
| Permanent Settlement — features and impact | 4 marks |
| Ryotwari System — AP focus (Thomas Munro) | 5 marks |
| Comparison of three revenue systems | 4 marks |
| Indigo cultivation and Blue Rebellion | 4 marks |
9.9 Quick Self-Test
Q1. Who introduced the Permanent Settlement and when? A1. Lord Cornwallis in 1793 (Bengal, Bihar, Odisha).
Q2. Who introduced the Ryotwari System in the Madras Presidency? A2. Thomas Munro.
Q3. What was the main problem with the Ryotwari System for AP peasants? A3. Revenue was too high (about 50% of produce), leading to indebtedness and land loss.
Q4. In which system was revenue 'permanently fixed'? A4. Permanent Settlement (1793).
Q5. What was the Blue Rebellion? A5. The 1859 peasant revolt in Bengal against forced indigo cultivation.
Q6. What is the difference between 'nij' and 'ryoti' cultivation of indigo? A6. Nij = planter's own land; Ryoti = forced on peasant's land.
Q7. Why did indigo cultivation decline in AP? A7. Synthetic dyes were invented (late 19th century), reducing demand.
Q8. What was the Indigo Commission (1860)? A8. A government commission formed after the Blue Rebellion; it declared indigo cultivation exploitative.
Q9. Under which system did the village headman collect revenue? A9. Mahalwari System.
Q10. Why were peasants forced to grow indigo instead of food crops? A10. The British textile industry needed indigo dye for cloth; planters used coercion to force cultivation.
