Struggle for Freedom — The Early Phase

Introduction

The Indian freedom struggle was a long and complex movement spanning nearly a century. The early phase (roughly 1857–1919) saw the transition from moderate constitutional politics to more assertive nationalist agitation. This chapter covers the formation of political associations, the founding of the Indian National Congress, the partition of Bengal, the Swadeshi Movement, the Home Rule Movement, and the turning point of Jallianwala Bagh.

Section 1: Early Political Associations

Before the formation of the Indian National Congress, various regional political associations voiced Indian demands.

Section 2: The Indian National Congress (Founded 1885)

Formation

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.

The Moderates (1885–1905)

The early phase of the Congress is called the Moderate Phase or the phase of 'Political Begging.'

Methods of the Moderates:

• Prayer, petition, and protest — constitutional methods
• Annual Congress sessions to pass resolutions
• Appeals to British public and Parliament
• Demands for administrative reforms, Indianisation of civil services

Achievements:

• Created a national political consciousness
• Exposed the exploitative nature of British rule (Naoroji)
• Laid the foundation for mass nationalism

Section 3: The Partition of Bengal (1905)

Background

• Bengal was the largest province of British India — population of ~80 million
• The British argued that Bengal was too large to administer efficiently
• Indians believed the real motive was 'divide and rule' — splitting the Hindu and Muslim populations

The Partition

Indian Reaction

The partition sparked a massive nationalist response:

• Boycott of British goods
• Swadeshi Movement — promotion of Indian-made goods
• National education — establishment of national schools and colleges
• Public meetings, processions, and demonstrations
• Ravindra Nath Tagore composed 'Amar Shonar Bangla' (later Bangladesh's national anthem)
• Tilak used Ganpati and Shivaji festivals to mobilise masses

Section 4: The Swadeshi Movement (1905–1908)

The Extremists

A new trend within the Congress — the 'Extremists' or 'Garams' (Hot Faction) — emerged alongside the Moderates ('Narams' or Soft Faction).

Differences between Moderates and Extremists:

Section 5: The Home Rule Movement (1916–1918)

Background

• World War I (1914–1918) — India supported Britain but expected political reforms in return
• Repression during the war created resentment
• Annie Besant, an Irish-born theosophist, emerged as a major nationalist leader

Two Leagues

Demands:

• Self-government (Home Rule) for India within the British Empire
• More Indians in the legislative councils
• Political reforms after the war

Significance:

• Brought women into political activism (led by Annie Besant)
• Spread nationalist ideas to smaller towns
• Created pressure for constitutional reforms

Section 6: The Lucknow Pact (1916)

An important unity between the Congress and the All India Muslim League (founded 1906, Dhaka):

• Both parties agreed to present joint demands to the British
• Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims
• Muslim League supported Congress's demand for self-government
• Showed Hindu-Muslim unity in the freedom struggle

Section 7: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)

Also known as the Government of India Act 1919, based on the report of Secretary of State Edwin Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford.

Key features:

• Introduced Dyarchy (dual government) in provinces
• Transferred subjects (education, health, agriculture) to Indian ministers
• Reserved subjects (finance, police, justice) remained with British governors
• Bicameral legislature at the centre

Indian reaction:

• The reforms were seen as inadequate and disappointing
• Dyarchy was unworkable
• The British had no intention of granting real self-government

Section 8: The Rowlatt Act (1919)

Section 9: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

Events

• A public meeting was held at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, to protest the Rowlatt Act
• The gathering was peaceful — people were celebrating Baisakhi
• General Dyer ordered troops to open fire without warning
• The Bagh had only one narrow entrance — no escape for the crowd
• ~1,000 people were killed and over 2,000 wounded (official estimate)
• Firing continued for 10–15 minutes until ammunition ran out

Aftermath

• Rabindranath Tagore returned his knighthood in protest
• Sir Shankar Nair resigned from the Viceroy's Council
• The Hunter Commission condemned Dyer's actions
• Dyer was removed from command
• The massacre shattered any remaining faith Indians had in British justice
• Gandhi decided to launch the Non-Cooperation Movement — a turning point

ICSE Exam Focus

Common Mistakes in ICSE Exams

Self-Test Questions

Q1: When and where was the Indian National Congress founded? A1: The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 in Bombay, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College. A.O. Hume was the founder, and W.C. Bonnerjee was the first president.

Q2: What were the differences between the Moderates and the Extremists? A2: The Moderates believed in constitutional methods (prayer, petition, protest) and wanted self-government within the Empire. The Extremists, led by Tilak, demanded complete Swaraj and used methods like boycott and passive resistance.

Q3: Why was the Partition of Bengal (1905) opposed by Indians? A3: Indians believed the partition was a 'divide and rule' tactic to split Hindus and Muslims. It sparked the Swadeshi Movement, which involved boycotting British goods and promoting Indian-made products.

Q4: What was the significance of the Lucknow Pact (1916)? A4: The Lucknow Pact united the Congress and the Muslim League in presenting joint demands to the British. Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims, and both parties agreed to demand self-government.

Q5: What happened at Jallianwala Bagh and why was it a turning point? A5: On April 13, 1919, General Dyer ordered troops to fire on a peaceful gathering at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, killing ~1,000 people. The massacre destroyed faith in British justice and led Gandhi to launch the Non-Cooperation Movement, marking the start of the Gandhian era.

Key Dates to Remember

Final Summary

The early phase of India's freedom struggle (1885–1919) was a period of political awakening and experimentation. The Indian National Congress provided a national platform. The Moderates laid the foundations through constitutional agitation. The Partition of Bengal and the Swadeshi Movement brought mass participation for the first time. The Home Rule Movement sustained the demand for self-government during World War I. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was the breaking point — it destroyed trust in British benevolence and set the stage for Gandhi's mass movements. For ICSE students, this period shows how the Indian national movement evolved from elite politics to mass struggle.